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All dynastic rulers were interested in preserving
tradition. New influences, often from India or the Middle East, were sanctioned by the
court, but innovative ideas in art were carefully woven into existing Chinese life. Most
artists and architects were government employees, although amateur artists, often retired
or exiled officials, were free from court control and created independent work. Knowledge
of materials and techniques was passed from generation to generation within families. Shang Dynasty The Neolithic cultural period, from about 4000 to about 2000 BC, preceded the Shang dynasty. Neolithic tombs have yielded a rich variety of artifacts, including painted jars and black clay vessels. The Shang dynasty, lasting from about 1766 to about 1027 BC, originated as a clan of Neolithic villagers. The high artistic quality of Shang artifacts, found chiefly in tombs, attests to the advanced character of China's earliest dynastic art. Inscriptions on various objects show that rulers were concerned with ensuring their immortality. Zhou Dynasty The Zhou dynasty lasted from about 1027 to 256 BC. Initially, much of the Shang culture was retained. Later, religious bronzes became more secular, with images of totemic animals and monsters giving way to colorful, abstract ornament. Silk paintings, wood sculpture, lacquerwork, and glazed ceramics indicate new developments and styles. Qin, Han, and Six Dynasties Following the Zhou empire's breakdown, the Qin dynasty (221-206 BC) rose to power. When Qin emperor Shihuangdi died, he was entombed in a massive burial mound. In it were more than 6000 highly realistic terra-cotta human figures and horses. Now faded, the figures were originally painted in bright colors. The Han dynasty ruled from 206 BC to AD 220. Painting from this time shows the first attempts to depict space and distance, and the first landscape elements appear. Tombs, the only surviving form of Han architecture, were elaborately constructed, with intricate vaulting systems and columns replacing the older timber and packed-earth structures. In the next period, referred to as the Six dynasties (AD 220-589), rival clans attempted to control portions of the empire. Buddhism, from neighboring India, had the most profound effect on Chinese art. Monumental north Indian sculpture led to massive Chinese stone carvings of Buddhist deities, and wooden pagodas were constructed, based on Indian and Han dynasty structures. By the 6th century, Buddhism had permeated nearly every facet of Chinese cultural life. Secular traditions also changed, and landscape painting acquired a delicacy and ethereal character that has continued throughout the long Chinese landscape tradition. In ceramics, the first recognizable ware type appeared: a highly durable, green-glazed stoneware. Tang (T’ang) Dynasty The Tang (T’ang) period, sometimes called China's Golden Age, lasted from 618 to 907. The dynasty's stable government and economic prosperity allowed all arts to flourish. Despite periods of persecution of Buddhism, its influence continued. Sculptures tended to be massive, with pagodas made of stone and monumental stone sculptures carved as full, sensual figures. An important milestone in ceramics was a new technique that allowed extremely high-temperature firing of a fine-grained, white substance known today as porcelain. Song Dynasty The arts of the Song dynasty (960-1279) show an introspection and refinement cultivated in response to harsh political realities. Painting, especially landscapes, is often cited as the greatest achievement of Song art. In the Northern Song period (960-1126), painters favored a monumental style, with such subjects as massive rocky cliffs punctuated by occasional waterfalls. Also, the first wen-jen hua, or literati painting, appeared. Literati were amateurs who produced their own distinctive landscapes, generally less grandiose than official paintings. During the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279), the emperor's painting academy produced a landscape style known as the Ma-Hsia School. Mists were painted to suggest landmass and to add a light, ethereal quality. Open space and infinity were qualities much prized in the Ma-Hsia tradition. In contrast, Zen monks believed in the spontaneity of artistic creation, often producing free, loosely defined brush paintings in a few frenzied minutes. The finest Northern ceramics are classic wares, including milky-white glazed ware, vividly colored ware, and green-glazed stoneware called celadon, which was shared by both Song dynasties. The Southern Song dynasty contributed its own royal wares, most notably white porcelains. The Southern Song celadons have a subtle bluish-green glaze cherished for the serenity it was thought to evoke. Buddhist monks favored glossy, black-glazed bowls. Song architecture tended to be refined, and curved roofs, long associated with Chinese architecture, reached their zenith in this period. Pagodas, still major religious structures, were often decorated with complex latticework. Yuan Dynasty During the Yuan period (1279-1368), the Mongol invasion altered Chinese art. Because most official artists were uneasy with foreign rule and retired from the academy, the literati represented the most accomplished school of artists, and much future artistic innovation came from them. The literati painters, still concerned primarily with landscapes, used bold and assertive brushwork. Mists suggesting distance, and an interest in infinity and spaciousness, yielded to a more dramatic concern with form. The Mongol court made important advances in porcelain techniques by adding color to fine porcelain. Artisans mixed ground cobalt with water and painted it on unfired porcelain, resulting in a rich shade of blue. This innovation, called underglaze blue, began the famous tradition of blue-and-white ware. Copper oxide was used in the same way, creating underglaze red porcelains. Ming Dynasty Mongol rule ended with the establishment of a native Chinese dynasty known as the Ming (1368-1644). The most significant painting continued to originate among the literati. Ceramic production increased dramatically, and underglaze blue and red became increasingly popular exports. In addition, enameling was introduced in a new double-firing technology that permitted the application of colors such as green, yellow, or purple to porcelain. Qing Dynasty In 1644 the Manchu nation seized control of the Ming dynasty. Anxious to assimilate the traditions of previous dynasties, the rulers of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), as the Manchu became known, embraced all aspects of Chinese culture. The most important painting still came from the literati. Two distinct schools emerged: One group based its work on Yuan masters, and the other, known as the individualists, practiced freer, less restrained painting. The process of enameling was further developed during this time, along with a nearly endless number of new shades for porcelain. Metalwork, lacquer, and carved jade continued the ornate Ming styles. Creating minute detail on blown glass was a unique Qing accomplishment. Chinese Art in the 20th Century Strong nationalist feelings provoked waves of political unrest that finally, in 1911, caused the downfall of the Qing dynasty. The founding of the Republic of China led to modernization and acceptance of many Western ideas. Many painters studied in Japan and Europe. They returned with innovations, including bold colors, European brushwork, perspective, and abstraction. The decorative arts absorbed less outside influence, and most of the traditional styles endured. The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 infused painting and the decorative arts with political content. Painting styles, often drawing on the advances of the post-Qing schools, include themes extolling socialist reconstruction. Many traditional but previously unrecognized folk arts have been elevated to a place of significance, including weaving, basketry, jewelry making, and wood-block printing. Since the late 1970s, Chinese art has become less political. |
Historical Development